3. SOME PEDAGOGICAL NOTIONS FOR LEARNING WEB LITERACY

3.2.2 A look into the mind of the individual

Whether we choose a constructivist approach which focuses on the individual or a more social form of constructivism, all constructivist approaches to knowledge and learning share the basic core of constructive thinking. According to these approaches, knowledge itself is regarded as relative. It is constructed by individuals and communities. Learners construct meanings and are seen as active cognitive actors, who interpret the world on the basis of their earlier knowledge and experiences (Tynjälä 1999:37-39).

We have stated earlier that our aim is to build our theory of practice on the basis of a socio-constructive approach to learning. However, before introducing the social aspects of learning we will have a look at the individual mind through an overview of a more cognitive-constructive approach. This is because in order to form a theoretical basis for learning web literacy it seems necessary to integrate the cognitive side of learning into our approach. For, as we defined web literacy as partly consisting of the knowledge and awareness of oneself as a web user (see ch 2.3.3), there is a need to define this knowledge in more detail, as well as describe the cognitive processes through which learners gain this knowledge.

In the following, we will focus on the cognitive processes through which learners gain both content knowledge but also what we feel is more important in the light of the above: knowledge about knowledge and learning. We will begin by presenting a cognitive model of learning process and move on to describe the relationship between such cognitive key terms as awareness, reflection and metacognitive knowledge. Once more, we ask the readers of the following description of intrapersonal learning to kindly keep in mind the environment where meanings are constructed when engaging in social practices.

A cognitive-constructive approach to learning has its focus on the internal management of learning. Learners are seen as having mental constructs, based on their prior knowledge, experiences and beliefs through which they interpret the world. Terms tracing all the way back to Jean Piaget's work, such as assimilation and accommodation, are used when describing learning from the point of view of cognitive construction. Both relate to the idea of shaping mental constructs. When we encounter new things, we may either integrate them into the existing mental constructs (assimilation) that we have so far, or then again there might be a need to reconstruct and shape the existing construct in such a way that the new information fits into the scheme (accommodation) (Tynjälä 1999:39-41).

Following the cognitive-constructive premises introduced above there are several models of learning, which attempt to describe the cognitive processes involved in meaning making. For example, when presenting the principles of his language curriculum, van Lier (1996:11) describes such process as follows:

"To learn something new one must first notice it. This noticing is an awareness of its existence, obtained and enhanced by paying attention to it. Paying attention is focusing one's consciousness, or pointing one's perceptual powers in the right direction, and making mental "energy" available for processing. Processing involves linking something that is perceived in the outside world to structures (patterns of connections) that exist in the mind."

Van Lier's cycle of learning begins from noticing and moves through paying attention to processing. In the present study we adopt a model similar to van Lier's, yet we use different terms. These are the terms in Benson's (2001:86-98) model of the three sets of cognitive processes, which are used when elaborating on the development of autonomy in language learning. These cognitive processes are building metacognitive knowledge, directing attention, and reflection. The cyclic process through which autonomy develops is illustrated in the picture below as we now move on to look at all the three sets of processes in more detail (see Figure 7).

Figure 7. Cognitive processes (adapted from Benson 2001:86)

Metacognition is an awareness of one's own (and others' ) cognitive processes, thinking, learning and knowing. Metacognition is needed when a conceptual change takes place. Before you can change your conception, the mental construct that you have of that world phenomenon, it is a prerequisite to know what it is that you know (Tynjälä 1999:114-115).

Metacognition can be divided into two subcomponets: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skills. Metacognitive knowledge is regarded as stable, early developing system of related ideas the learner has about learning. In other words, metacognitive knowledge is what the learner knows about learning, whereas metacognitive skills refer to the learner's abilities to put the metacognitive knowledge s/he has into practice. In the scope of this study we will focus on the metacognitive knowledge as it is a prerequisite for the metacognitive skills to develop.

Metacognitive knowledge can be divided into three areas: those of person, task and strategy related knowledge (see eg. Tynjälä 1999:114-115, Wenden 1998 in Benson 2001:95-98, Wenden 2001:45-46), which are illustrated in Figure 8.

Person knowledge is knowledge learners have acquired about how cognitive and affective factors may influence their own (or other's) learning, and how these factors apply in their experience, as well as how proficient the learners see themselves on a given area.

Task knowledge refers to the purpose of the task, knowledge about task types and task demands.

Strategic knowledge refers to knowledge of what strategies are, and when and how to apply these strategies.

Figure 8. Metacognitive knowledge

All the three areas of metacognition also play an important role in web literacy. The importance is in understanding that, for instance, there are no strict authoritative link lists and references that can be passed on the learners to manage the medium. What can be achieved is an awareness of the characteristics of the web and of yourself as a user of the web. For a more detailed description on how metacognitive knowledge relates to web literacy see chapter 2.3.3 in which we describe metacognitive knowledge as the third field of web literacy, in addition to the actual web literacy related skills and content knowledge of the web as a medium.

According to Wenden (1998 in Benson 2001:95-98), proficient learners are able to construct mental representations of how demanding the task is. This kind of use of one's metacognitive knowledge is understood to be as important a goal for learning as is the actual domain knowledge, whether it was a foreign language, chemistry, the history of Finland, or in our case, the web. Also Tynjälä (1999:115) stresses the need of control over metacognitive knowledge. She states that by managing your metacognition you are more self-directed. Similarly, the lack of metacognitive knowledge results in external management and dependence on external teacher or other instruction. This notion also supports the need for developing metacognition when the goal of learning is autonomy, as our goal is to help students to become more autonomous mangers of the dynamic and changing medium, the web.

Let us now move on to the two other sets of cognitive processes, directing attention and reflection. As presented in the picture (Figure 7, cognitive processes), metacognition is built through these two processes (Benson 2001). As has already been mentioned, before any learning will take place, you must first notice the object of your learning. In other words, awareness is a prerequisite to all learning (see eg. van Lier 1996). If you wish to change your conceptions, you must first become aware of your existing conceptions and express them explicitly (Tynjälä 1999:72-97). When applying this to learning web literacy, the learners need to first become aware of how they understand web literacy, before there can be any development. And as to directing attention, the learners' attention needs to be directed to the various aspects of web literacy if we wish them to broaden their perspective. For if web readers are not aware of, for instance, the importance of the visual mode on the web, and the effects it may have on reading, they are more likely to let the visual aspects of the web content effect the interpretation.

Bialystok (1994 in Benson 2001:89) defines awareness as "the result of the interaction between analysis and control." According to Bialystok, "analysed representations can be attended to by means of control of processing in precise ways. More analysed representations are more articulated, and they allow attention to be brought to more detailed and more precise specifications of those representations…", which results in a "… subjective feeling of awareness." In other words, by noticing something and focusing on it we can begin to analyse what it is that we notice and express it in an explicit way. The result of this analysis is a representation, a mental construct of what it is that we first noticed. The more we analyse, the more articulated this construct becomes, and the more specific details and characteristics we can begin to focus our attention on later. Applying this process to web literacy could mean, for instance, the web readers' attention being directed to their own reading strategies on the web. This can be done by triggering them to think about how they read on the web, and by asking them to articulate these ways of reading.

The previous example is only one supporting activity for raising awareness. Wenden (1998:531) introduces a list of four awareness raising activities, which help the learners to "sharpen" their mental representations of the perceived. When introducing the awareness raising activities Wenden also touches on the third set of cognitive processes presented in the scope of this chapter, reflection. Reflection is another key psychological component of autonomy (Benson 2001:90-95). In Figure 7 reflection is located between directed attention and building metacognitive knowledge. Mere noticing is thus not enough, but the information needs to be processed, and the following awareness raising activities (Wenden 1998:531) can be understood as reflection eliciting activities. These are "elicitation of learner's metacognitive knowledge and beliefs, articulation of what has come to awareness, confrontation with alternative views, and reflection on the appropriateness of revising, expanding one's knowledge". Also free writing, mind mapping and social interaction for expressing one's conceptions in an explicit way have been suggested for awareness raising activities (Tynjälä 1999:85).

As we have now introduced the cognitive processes that help the learners to develop towards autonomy, there is still a need to focus on one of the aspects that actually connects the cognitive to the social. That is the language needed in describing what it is that you perceive. This language is called metalanguage, also introduced by Cope and Kalantzis (2000:24). To give it a brief definition, metalanguage is language about language. Having a metalanguage on some specific topic has to do with being able to describe this topic and analyse it more fully. As a learning space, Netro aims at providing the learners with a metalanguage on web literacy, that is, on the meaning making processes and the characteristics of the web. As the attention is directed to a specific aspect of the medium, the learners still need vocabulary to conceptualise and put into words what it is that they notice. Metalanguage is needed in all the Wenden's (1998:531) awareness raising activities, for the activities require the learner to articulate their thoughts.

To summarise, the cognitive-constructive processes described above, that is, building metacognitive knowledge, focused attention and reflection, illustrate the in-the-mind processes of learning as autonomy development. Elaborating on these processes is significant in the scope of this study for the development of metacogntion is closely connected to our definition of web literacy. In order to become web literate one must become aware of the medium and of one's relationship with that medium. Person knowledge of what kinds of web readers we are and what kinds of cognitive or attitudinal factors influence our reading are as important as the strategic knowledge of how to read for a particular purpose. Furthermore, task knowledge cannot be separated from the two, for knowledge of the novel tasks and new demands are highly important when dealing with such a new and diverse dynamic medium as the web.

In other words, to become web literate, users of the web need to gain this kind of metacognitive knowledge. Building metacognition requires directed attention to the characteristics of the web as well as to the learner, yet without a reflective approach on learning, and a metalanguage with which to articulate your thoughts, the metacognition will not develop. Luckily, the learner is not alone but a member of a knowledge building community, which supports its members' learning processes, which takes us back to the social aspects of learning.